Landscape changes in the Carpathians are related to centuries of human activity, which can be regarded as the key component of global change. Changes in mountainous regions are mainly caused by agriculture, urbanization, forest cutting for production and land abandonment. This paper aimed to assess the impact of natural and historical-cultural factors on forest ecosystem transformations occurred in the period 1848-2014 in two small areas (about 45 km2) on the Beskid Mountains (southern Poland). The comparison of historical and current maps, along with the application of GIS and field verification, allowed a full interpretation of changes in land use in the studied areas. A decrease of 58.0% in non-forest areas was observed in the considered period, while the forested area grew systematically by 28.3% and the forest-field boundary lowered in altitude. Current forest ecosystems are distributed as a mosaic and mainly consist of
Landscape is subject to increasing anthropogenic transformation in land use or land cover, which can be interpreted both locally and globally (
Landscape diversification has increased in the past decades, often resulting in disturbances to the functioning of ecosystems (
The main types of landscape change over Europe and their driving factors have been widely discussed in a recent review (
Carpathian mountain range covers more than 190.000 km2 throughout eastern Europe, extending for 1300 km in length and 120-350 km in width, and includes a unique combination of ecosystems. The Carpathians run through as many as 7 countries: Slovakia (about 71 % of its area), Romania (ca. 47%), Czechia (ca. 8%), Hungary (ca. 8%), Poland (over 6%), Ukraine, Austria and Serbia. As a consequence, different models of land management, determined both historically and culturally, have appeared and still exist in different parts of the Carpathians (
Changes in specific landscape elements (forests, abandoned land, meadows, hydrographic networks, cultural elements) have been analysed throughout the Carpathian range with different degrees of detail (
The aim of this paper was to determine the impact of natural and historical-cultural factors on forest ecosystem transformations in the Silesian and Zywiec Beskid Mountains over the period 1848-2014. An accurate assessment of landscape changes was carried out in two small mountainous areas (< 100 km2) which had been exploited by man for centuries. A detailed verification in the field of the results obtained from cartographic analyses allowed to recognize the transformation of fir-beech phytocenoses and the succession in managed spruce forests in the light of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The Beskid range (Western Carpathians) stretches for about 600 km from the Bečva River in the west to the Cheremosh River in the east, and reaches a width of about 50-70 km. We selected two research areas (the Barania Góra Range and Racza Range, each covering about 45 km2) situated in the Western Beskids (49° 32′ 45″ N, 18° 26′ 51″ E -
The natural conditions of the area are suitable to forests and meadows/grasslands, whereas current land use reflects the socio-political and economic conditions in the late 19th century, when the Beskid region was heavily populated and large areas were deforested for agricultural use, despite unfavourable topographic-, soil- and climatic conditions (
For the analysis of changes in landscape over time, only maps based on direct field mapping were selected in this study. We decided to select map series with similar scales and objectives; however, we encountered serious difficulties to match such criteria. Therefore, only six of the seven maps acquired were used in this study, as reported in
All the historical maps were georeferenced in two steps, which consisted in: (i) calculating the transformation matrix; (ii) carrying out proper geometric transformation and interpolation resampling of a distorted image to a new raster of regular size (
Austrian cadastral maps were overlaid onto a grid with a size corresponding to the map frame size using affine transformation and the coordinates of the frame corners. Rectification was then carried out and its precision verified by estimating the root-mean-square error (RMSE), which was < 4.91 m for each map sheet.
The
The military maps were georeferenced by overlaying the corner points of the raster image onto the grid with a size corresponding to the map frame size using affine transformation. Rectification was then carried out and the image was adjusted to the reference layer using control points.
For all maps, historical local reference system was transformed into the contemporary global system. This step involved the application of a simplified Helmert transformation with three parameters (dx, dy, dz) of the shift in the coordinate system origin using the inverse Molodensky formulas (
The processed cartographic materials underwent screen digitization using the snapping method. Errors are usually generated during this operation,
Screen digitization was combined with the creation of a database of land-use and land-cover forms. By aggregating the data included in each series of maps, land-cover maps were developed where forest and non-forest areas were clearly distinguishable. In both cases, the road network and the hydrographic network were attached to the adjoining polygons, as the boundaries ran along roads and watercourses.
As a result of the procedures described above, vector maps were created which allowed spatial analyses to be carried out. The V_LATE add-on of the package ArcGIS® ver. 10.2.2 was used, which allowed to calculate landscape metrics describing land cover and the forest-field boundary in each time section. Indicators of changes in forest and non-forest cover in each time section were calculated by the following parameters:
Changes in Forest Area (
Changes in Non-forest Area (
Changes in Forest Area in relation to Total Area (
Changes in Non-forest Area in relation to Total Area (
Changes in Forest Area in relation to Forest Area in 1848 (
Changes in Non-forest Area in relation to Non-forest Area in 1848 (
Percentage changes in Forest Area between time section
Percentage changes in Non-forest Area between time section
The analysis of changes in forest and non-forest areas was conducted for the years 1848-2014 on the basis of the available cartographic resources (
In both study areas, the forest cover grew systematically at the expense of non-forest areas in the period 1848-2014 due to the abandonment of agriculture (
Throughout 1848-2014, the number of non-forest patches was higher than that of forest patches, with different trends through time in the two studied regions. In the Barania Góra Range, we observed an increase in the largest forest patches over the considered period, whereas in the Racza Range it decreased until 1933 and then started to increase.
In both the Barania Góra Range and the Racza Range, the length of the forest-field boundary initially decreased (by 39.4 km and 45.4 km, respectively), and then increased (by 13.3 and 67.3 km) before decreasing again (by 15.4 and 68.2 km). The numbers of boundaries and patches reveal a similar tendency. In both study areas the forest-field boundary was observed to progressively decrease in elevation (
The study area is situated within the foothills and the lower forest zone (lower subalpine zone) which is the optimum (climax) for
The comparison of potential natural vegetation with current vegetation distribution revealed large changes in both species composition and the distribution of forest associations in the two study area (
The grey alder association
The most extended floral habitat in the Silesian and Zywiec Beskids is the fertile Carpathian beech wood
The Carpathian sycamore
Near-top parts of slopes are mainly occupied by the low montane fir-spruce wood
The West-Carpathian spruce forest association
Non-forest patches with dominant semi-natural associations often occur within the forests in the two study areas. These patches mainly include various types of meadows and pastures, characterized by the following plant communities:
The maps used in this study differ both in terms of scale (from 1:2.880 of the Austrian cadastral maps to 1:100.000 of the WIG military maps), their use (military or administrative purposes) and map projection. Therefore, results based on these maps need careful interpretation and verification using other data sources. Furthermore, the results could be affected by errors occurring at each stage of the creation of a digital map; particularly, georeferencing greatly affects the quality of results. Furthermore, the information value of map data is lower compared to direct source data, having a lower precision and accuracy. Being aware of the limitations of maps is the basis for drawing correct conclusions (
The main results of this study, obtained by applying the most appropriate methods of analysis of cartographic historical data, can be summarized as follows:
The dynamics of changes in land cover in two areas of the Beskid mountains were assessed by comparing the distribution and extension of different land cover types on maps from different time intervals. Although the results obtained should not be treated as absolute (see the above considerations), it was still possible to assess the trends related to changes in land cover in the study areas.
The course of the forest-field boundary was analyzed with great care, as its length and density are particularly dependent on the map scale. The geometric simple choropleth method was used for this purpose. Applying a definite size of the basic field in relation to some generalization of the map contents allows excessive precision to be avoided. The size of the basic field was determined by the geometric method.
The detection of changes in forest ecosystems based on cartographic materials was feasible only in terms of tracking changes in spatial distribution of forest/ non-forest areas. A detailed analysis of changes in forest ecosystems in terms of transformations of particular forest associations (their spatial distribution and composition in species) is only possible based on field research. The comparison of current distribution of particular forest associations with the potential vegetation has provided important hints for assessing the impact of cultural-historical factors on changes in forest ecosystems.
Forest landscapes in the Silesian- and Zywiec Beskids are located at higher elevations (forest belt) and include non-forest glades and pastures. On the other hand, agricultural landscapes are situated at lower elevations (foothill belt), and includes forest patches, like small enclaves next to water courses or on steeper slopes. Our results highlight that the forest belt increased in the period 1848-2014 at the expense of the foothill belt. As in other parts of the Carpathians, changes in the forest area were closely related to changes in the range of areas used for agricultural activities (
Our results on the length of the forest-field boundary should not be treated as actual absolute values. However, they can be useful to assess the importance of the various spatial processes involved in the transformation of the landscape (
The trends in land use in the two studied areas were mainly determined by non-environmental factors. Land use in 1848 was the result of the so-called “land hunger”. Overpopulation and poor economic conditions forced to set arable lands at higher elevations and sloping hills, although most sites were unsuitable for crops. As a result, land use was far from sustainable in the mid-19th century and the pressure on the environment was high. At that time, the landscape was highly diversified, as occurring in other European countries (
Due to slightly different starting natural conditions, the land use structure was closer to the optimum in the Racza Range than in the Barania Góra Range, being the latter lesser managed than the former. This reflects the harsher geomorphological conformation of the Racza Range, which still represents a barrier for transports (
Starting from the late 19th century, intensified forest management and access limitations to forests contributed to a progressive reduction of the traditional meadow-pasture management. Furthermore, increased acquisition of land for residential building and crops caused a reduction in the area for pasture. Additionally, the outflow of people towards the growing industrial centers and high market competition for sheep products contributed to the abandonment of pasture management in the higher parts of the mountains (
The decrease in the non-forest area is still ongoing on the entire range of the Polish Carpathians as a result of political changes and socio-economic transformation,
Changes in land cover in the Barania Góra and Racza Ranges since 1848 have contributed to renaturalization of formerly cultivated forest clearings through the recolonization of forest tree species. On the other hand, the ecological consequences of such changes involve a decrease in biodiversity, a larger fragmentation of rare habitats, the weakening of soil denudation and microclimatic changes (
The recolonization by forest tree species of abandoned pastures and meadows poses a serious threat to such communities in terms of species and ecosystem biodiversity (
Our results indicate that plant communities in the study areas have been significantly transformed by man and do not reflect the potential natural vegetation at present. Starting from the late 15th century, forests were thinned (by burning or cutting down) in order to obtain land for grazing and agriculture (
The history of vegetation in the Beskids can only be revealed indirectly based on paleobotanical research. The dominance of
Changes in land use due to deforestation and subsequent reforestation are common to many mountain regions, especially in developed countries, and are called “forest transition” (
This study identified the following effects of land use and landscape changes in the past 200 years:
The forested area in the Racza and Barania Góra Ranges grew systematically between 1848-2014 at the expense of non-forest areas, where farming was abandoned. The number of non-forest patches was higher than that of forest patches. Changes in the forest areas in this part of the Carpathians have continued since the early 20th century.
The area of clearings and pastures decreased significantly because of intensified forest management, the use of land for residential buildings and crops, and the natural recolonization by forest tree species. All these factors contributed to the gradual decline of traditional meadow-pasture management.
Changes in the forest/non-forest cover over time were accompanied by a decrease/increase in the length of the forest-field boundary and its lowering relative to altitude. The attrition of the boundary progressed from the highest levels of the mountains to areas close to permanent rural buildings.
Analysis of cartographic resources and historical scientific papers, along with field verification, enabled a full interpretation of changes in land use in the chosen time interval. The study of historical maps combined with contemporary field data has potential for monitoring further landscape dynamics.
The approach applied in this study could be easily extended to other Carpathian regions subject to analogous historical-cultural influences (similar type of settlement, model of land use, policy regarding agriculture and environment, etc.). Moreover, the results obtained allow the comparison with other regions in Europe subject to a similar impact of natural processes, but a different impact of historical and cultural processes.
We gratefully acknowledge two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.
Location of the two surveyed area (Barania Góra Range and Racza Range) in the Polish Carpathians.
Changes in forest land cover in the Barania Góra Range between 1848 and 2014. (1): Forest areas (dark green); (2): non-forest areas (light green).
Changes in forest land cover in the Racza Range between 1848 and 2014. (1): Forest areas (dark green); (2): non-forest areas (light green).
Dynamics of forest-field boundary occurrence in the Barania Góra Range (A) and Racza Range (B) between 1848 and 2014. The diagrams show the number of basic fields as follows: (1): vanished forest-field boundary (in blue); (2): continuing forest-field boundary (in green); (3): emerging forest-field boundary (in red); (4): no forest-field boundary (in grey).
Changes in forest associations. (A): maps of curent forest associations in the two study areas (left panel: Barania Góra Range; right panel: Racza Range -
(a) Secondary succession of forest onto unused pastures; (b) Sheep grazing as a nature conservation measure; (c) Clearcutting as a result of forest degradation.
Cartographic materials used for the analyses.
Map type | Map sheets | Year | Scale |
---|---|---|---|
Austrian cadastral maps | Lipowa, Ostre, Radziechowy, Rycerka Górna | 1848 | 1:2.880 |
Spezialkarte der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie | Saysbush | 1879 | 1:75.000 |
Ujsoly-Stara Bistrica | 1885 | 1:75.000 | |
WIG military map | Zywiec, Ujsoly | 1933 | 1:100.000 |
Military topographic map | Szczyrk, Wegierska Górka | 1960 | 1:25.000 |
Nova Bistrica, Oscadnica, Rycerka Dolna, Zborov nad Bistricou | 1975 | ||
Topographic map of Poland | Barania Góra, Lipowa, Mlada Hora, Przegibek, Szczyrk Malinów, Tatarki, Wegierska Górka, Wielka Racza | 1979 | 1:10.000 |
Orthophotomap | - | 2009 | field pixel size of 0.25 m |
Changes in land cover between 1848 and 2014. (
Range | Timesection |
|
|
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barania Góra | 1848 | 3699.1 | 82.1 | 9 | 3693.9 | 807.2 | 17.9 | 142 | 165.7 |
1879 | 3707.5 | 82.3 | 2 | 3706.5 | 798.8 | 17.7 | 95 | 174.0 | |
1933 | 3840.8 | 85.2 | 1 | 3848.1 | 665.5 | 14.8 | 83 | 84.6 | |
1960 | 4145.3 | 92.0 | 12 | 4116.3 | 361.0 | 8.0 | 100 | 58.6 | |
1979 | 4213.9 | 93.5 | 14 | 4217.8 | 292.4 | 6.5 | 151 | 38.0 | |
2014 | 4230.2 | 93.9 | 18 | 4226.0 | 276.1 | 6.1 | 106 | 25.4 | |
Racza | 1848 | 3137.8 | 68.8 | 17 | 2994.7 | 1423.0 | 31.2 | 89 | 462.3 |
1885 | 3164.0 | 69.4 | 14 | 2819.8 | 1396.8 | 30.6 | 49 | 435.8 | |
1933 | 3262.5 | 71.5 | 15 | 2627.8 | 1298.3 | 28.5 | 33 | 454.9 | |
1975 | 3592.2 | 78.8 | 48 | 3530.0 | 968.6 | 21.2 | 89 | 394.5 | |
1979 | 3619.4 | 79.4 | 79 | 3292.1 | 941.4 | 20.6 | 140 | 353.7 | |
2014 | 3899.7 | 85.5 | 30 | 3853.6 | 661.1 | 14.5 | 66 | 115.5 |
Dynamics of land cover changes between 1848 and 2014. (
Range | Time interval | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barania Góra | 1848-1879 | 8.4 | 0.2 | 8.4 | 0.2 | -8.4 | -0.2 | -8.4 | -1.0 |
1879-1933 | 133.6 | 3.0 | 142.0 | 3.6 | -133.6 | -3.0 | -142.0 | -16.7 | |
1933-1960 | 304.5 | 6.8 | 446.2 | 7.9 | -304.5 | -6.8 | -446.2 | -45.8 | |
1960-1979 | 68.6 | 1.5 | 514.8 | 1.7 | -68.6 | -1.5 | -514.8 | -19.0 | |
1979-2014 | 16.3 | 0.4 | 531.1 | 0.4 | -16.3 | -0.4 | -63.8 | -5.6 | |
Racza | 1848-1885 | 26.2 | 0.6 | 26.2 | 0.8 | -26.2 | -0.6 | -26.2 | -1.8 |
1885-1933 | 98.5 | 2.2 | 124.7 | 3.1 | -98.5 | -2.2 | -124.7 | -7.1 | |
1933-1975 | 329.7 | 7.2 | 454.4 | 10.1 | -329.7 | -7.2 | -454.4 | -25.4 | |
1975-1979 | 27.2 | 0.6 | 481.6 | 0.8 | -27.2 | -0.6 | -481.6 | -2.8 | |
1979-2014 | 280.3 | 6.1 | 761.9 | 7.7 | -280.3 | -6.1 | -761.9 | -29.83 |
Changes in the forest-field boundary between 1848 and 2014.
Study area | Timesection | Total Edge(TE, km) | Edge Density(ED, m ha-1) | Number ofEdge (NE) | Minimal Edge(ME, m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Barania Góra Range | 1848 | 123.4 | 27 | 151 | 33 |
1879 | 96.1 | 21 | 96 | 228 | |
1933 | 95.8 | 21 | 83 | 125 | |
1960 | 84.0 | 19 | 113 | 79 | |
1979 | 97.3 | 22 | 164 | 34 | |
2014 | 81.9 | 18 | 123 | 48 | |
Racza Range | 1848 | 156.7 | 34 | 106 | 45 |
1885 | 120.5 | 26 | 62 | 188 | |
1933 | 111.3 | 24 | 47 | 280 | |
1975 | 151.3 | 33 | 134 | 81 | |
1979 | 178.6 | 39 | 222 | 33 | |
2014 | 110.4 | 24 | 96 | 62 |
Trend of changes in boundary length and number of boundary and patches between 1848 and 2014. (+): increase; (-): decrease.
Time interval | Barania Góra Range | Racza Range | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boundarylength | Boundarynumber | Patchnumber | Boundarylength | Boundarynumber | Patchnumber | |
1848-1879 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
1879-1933 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
1933-1960 | - | + | + | + | + | + |
1960-1979 | + | + | + | + | + | + |
1979-2014 | - | - | - | - | - | - |