Species diversity is the most important component of biodiversity and plays an important role in maintaining forest ecosystem processes and stability. The assessment of the forest conservation value of species diversity is commonly carried out based on the Shannon-Wiener index. However, endangered and endemic species were always ignored in previous studies aimed at assessing the conservation value of forest species diversity. In this study, the conservation value of forest species diversity was assessed in two representative provinces of southern and northern China (Yunnan and Jilin provinces, respectively). The conservation values of species diversity for different forest types was calculated based on the standard Shannon-Wiener index, and on two different indexes derived from it by including: (i) an endangered species index (
Biodiversity is the foundation of human survival and development, and refers to the variety of organisms in terrestrial, marine, and aquatic ecosystems, as well as the ecological complexity of different ecosystems (
Forest biodiversity conservation is aimed at promoting the survival of different species in forest ecosystems (
The assessment of biodiversity includes use and non-use values. The former consists of direct and indirect value, while the latter comprises existence and option values (
It is widely reported that methods for evaluating the conservation value of species diversity include the actual market price, as well as simulated market, alternative market, contingent valuation (CV), willingness to pay (WTP), expense payment, and cost-benefit methods (
Since the 1950, twenty-seven different indexes have been used to assess species diversity (
For assessing forest ecosystem services, the above forestry industry standard requires the use of specific data sources, the evaluation of several system processes and the application of a given formula that combines all the information in a synthetic index. Three different sources of data are considered: (i) long-term observation data form CFERN; (ii) forest resources inventory data from the State Forestry Administration; and (iii) social/public resource data published by the authority. The eight system processes evaluated are: (i) water conservation; (ii) soil conservation; (iii) carbon fixation; (iv) oxygen release; (v) nutrient accumulation by plants; (vi) biodiversity conservation; (vii) the protective efficiency of forests; and (viii) forest recreation. Finally, the formula accounted for both the quantity and quality of each of the above processes and data sources. Though suitable for assessing forest ecosystem services in China, the standard described above does not include other important aspects, such as the use of forest resources, forest by-products, or intrinsic forest value.
Although the Shannon-Wiener index is recognized as a classic indicator of species diversity, the important role of endangered and endemic species is always ignored in the assessment of the conservation value of forest species diversity. Indeed, two forest stands may show the same Shannon-Wiener index values regardless of the presence of endangered or endemic species in one of them. This calls for the inclusion of new criteria related with endangered and endemic species in the calculation of species diversity using the Shannon-Wiener index.
Endangered species are important components of forest ecosystems. Nonetheless, the rapid growth of the human population, the destruction of natural habitats, the over-exploitation of natural resources, environmental pollution, and the introduction of exotic species have threatened a large number of species with extinction (
Endangered categories are an important tool used to determine the conservation value of species, as well as the development of conservation strategies and priorities for endangered species. By signing the “Convention on Biological Diversity”, some countries and international organizations recognized the assessment of species’ endangered statuses as an important step in biodiversity conservation work. In the 1990s, China published the “China Plant Red Data Book” and “China Red Data Book of Endangered Animals” (
The heterogeneity of natural habitats, plant genetic variability, as well as interspecific hybridization, may result in endemic species (
In this study, we assessed the conservation values of forest species diversity in Yunnan and Jilin provinces, which are representative provinces of southern and northern China, respectively. The conservation values were calculated based on the Shannon-Wiener index, and a specific endangered species index and an endemic species index were added to amend the calculation in a stepwise manner. These three assessment methods were tested and verified to select the best one.
The conservation values of different types of forest stands in Yunnan and Jilin provinces were calculated based on the Shannon-Wiener index, defined as follows (
where
The total conservation value of species diversity was calculated for all stands by multiplying the stand area and the conservation value of species diversity per unit area (
where
In this study, endangered species were divided into four categories, according to the “China Species Red List” (
where
Since endemic species are not considered in the estimation of the biodiversity conservation value (see
where
Floristic and inventory data of the two provinces were taken from the 7th Chinese forest resource inventory. All the stand types considered in both Yunnan and Jilin provinces are shown in
The total conservation values of different stand types in Yunnan and Jilin provinces were 268.65 and 123.94 billion yuan yr-1, respectively (
The endangered species index (
The endemic species index (
In this study, the total conservation values of different forest ecosystems increased in both Yunnan and Jilin provinces when endangered and endemic species were included by suitable indexes into the Shannon-Wiener index. The Yunnan province is located in a tropical belt of China and is renowned for its species richness, especially for endangered and endemic species (
In the Yunnan province, as the endangered species index of
When the endemic species index was included the Shannon-Wiener index (
In the Jilin province, when the endangered species index was included in the assessment, the
In this study, the economic value of biodiversity was described by the species diversity conservation value, and the assessments carried out using two different modified forms of the Shannon-Wiener index. Compared with the conservation values based on the standard Shannon-Wiener index, increased values were obtained when endangered and endemic species indexes were incorporated in the assessment. The conservation values of endangered and endemic species can therefore contribute to the protection of endangered and endemic species in these two provinces of China.
Ancient trees are worthy of great conservation efforts because they are a record of a region’s climate, hydrology, geology, geography, vegetation, ecology, and other natural conditions, and have been witness to human activity and the historical process of social development. Additionally, ancient trees have special significance for the study of tree physiology because they allow researchers to analyze how a tree’s physiological processes change as it ages. Additionally, ancient trees are also the foundation of forest ecosystems, and an ancient tree index should also be considered when calculating biodiversity conservation values. Since data on ancient trees were not available, the conservation values of ancient trees were not evaluated in this assessment. However, this will be the future direction of our research.
This work was financially supported by the Special Fund for Forestry Scientific Research in the Public Interest No. 201404303, No. 20130430101, No. 201204101 and the National Basic Research and Development Program of China (973 Program) Grant No. 2011CB403201, and it was subsidized by CFERN & GENE Award Funds on Ecological Paper. Funding agencies were involved in the data collection and analysis, and participated in the consultation regarding the decision to publish this paper.
Conservation values of different forest stand types in the Yunnan province based on: (a) the standard Shannon-Wiener index (
Conservation values of different forest stand types in the Jilin province based on: (a) the standard Shannon-Wiener index (
Different levels of the Shannon-Wiener index and the corresponding monetary value.
Level | Shannon-Wienerindex | Monetary value(yuan hm-2 yr-1) |
---|---|---|
1 | Index ≥ 6 | 50 000 |
2 | 5 ≤ Index < 6 | 40 000 |
3 | 4 ≤ Index < 5 | 30 000 |
4 | 3 ≤ Index < 4 | 20 000 |
5 | 2 ≤ Index < 3 | 10 000 |
6 | 1 ≤ Index < 2 | 5 000 |
7 | Index < 1 | 3 000 |
The endangered species index and endangered species categories.
Endangered species index | Endangered categories | Endangered species |
---|---|---|
4 | critically endangered | See the “China Species Red List” (2004) |
3 | endangered | |
2 | vulnerable | |
1 | near threatened |
The endemic species index according to their geographic distribution.
Endemicspecies index | Species distribution |
---|---|
4 | Species exhibits a small-scale distribution in the mountains or in a special natural and geographical environment |
3 | Species is distributed in a larger natural and geographical environment, |
2 | Species is distributed in a specific continent |
1 | Species is distributed in at least two continents |
0 | Species is widely distributed throughout the world |
The stand types considered in this analysis for the Yunnan and Jilin provinces (China).
Yunnan province | Jilin province | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Num | Stand type | Area(104 ha) | Num | Stand type | Area(104 ha) |
1 | Other soft broadleaved forest | 162.20 | 1 | Miscellaneous tree forest | 407.71 |
2 | Broadleaved mixed forest | 239.46 | 2 | Broadleaved mixed forest | 109.92 |
3 | Shrubbery forest | 102.01 | 3 | Shrubbery forest | 79.37 |
4 | Broadleaved and coniferous mixed forest | 145.39 | 4 | Broadleaved and coniferous mixed forest | 86.48 |
5 | Other hardwood forest | 79.64 | 5 | Coniferous mixed forest | 29.53 |
6 | Coniferous mixed forest | 222.19 | 6 | 12.92 | |
7 | Economic forest | 310.47 | 7 | 65.72 | |
8 | Bamboo forest | 50.39 | 8 | 18.98 | |
9 | Other |
19.24 | 9 | 8.18 | |
10 | 35.50 | 10 | 8.07 | ||
11 | 34.06 | 11 | 3.98 | ||
12 | 32.14 | 12 | 5.67 | ||
13 | 59.03 | 13 | 4.79 | ||
14 | 22.07 | 14 | 1.76 | ||
15 | 24.00 | 15 | 1.90 | ||
16 | 23.52 | 16 | 0.75 | ||
17 | 3.36 | 17 | 0.41 | ||
18 | 6.72 | 18 | 0.53 | ||
19 | 6.24 | 19 | 0.16 | ||
20 | 12.51 | 20 | 0.15 | ||
21 | 3.84 | 21 | 0.03 | ||
22 | 3.36 | 22 | 0.05 | ||
23 | 3.36 | 23 | Other pine forest | 0.01 | |
24 | 2.88 | 24 | - | - | |
25 | 1.44 | 25 | - | - | |
26 | 0.48 | 26 | - | - | |
27 | 0.48 | 27 | - | - | |
28 | 0.48 | 28 | - | - |